ANO ÖLÇÜLERİ

İNŞAAT UYGULAMALARI_F.GÜRTOP
SAYFA 25
Yol ve alan betonları anolar halinde değil, genleşme derzine kadar (30-35m) tek parça olarak dökülür, sonradan daralma derzleriyle daraltılır. Normal işlerde ano boyutları 3-4m x 4.5-6m olmalıdır. 16m2'yi geçmemelidir. Uçak pisti veya apronlarda bu 100m2'ye kadar çıkabilir.

YERALTI SUYUNUN KULLANIMI

APPLIED WATER RESOURCES ENG_M.YANMAZ
SAYFA 149
Türkiye'de yeraltı suyunun kullanımı, yüzey suyu kullanımının %22'sini oluşturmaktadır.

SULAMA AMAÇLI İLK BARAJ

GEZİ
8.98 SAYFA 29
Asur halkı, dünyanın sulama amaçlı ilk barajını Fırat üzerinde kurdular.

SU KULLANIMI

WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE_T.J.McGHEE
SAYFA 11
Ev Amacıyla su kullanımı 75-380 l/kişi/g
Bir amerikan kentinde ortalama su kullanımı 670 l/kişi/g (2000)

SU KAYNAKLARI, TR

APPLIED WATER RESOURCES ENG._M.YANMAZ
SAYFA 3
Yıllık ortalama yağış yüksekliği 0.6426m
Toplam yağış hacmi 501km3
Ortalama runoff katsayısı c=0,37
Yüzey suyu hacmi 501*0,37=186km2

SU KANAL SİSTEMLERİNİN TARİHİ

CE429 DERS NOTLARI
SAYFA 1
Finikeliler, 3000 yıl önce Kıbrıs ve Suriye'de su kemerleri inşa ettiler. Bu süre içersinde Kudüs biri 30km olan iki su kanalıyla su elde ediyordu. 2000 yıl önce Roma'da çok gelişmiş su alma sistemleri vardı.

SU DAĞITIM SİSTEMLERİ

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM HANDBOOK_L.W.MAYS
PAGE 31
Major functional components : source development, raw water transmission, raw water storage, treatment, finished water storage, finished water distribution

Nodes are classified as junction nodes, where inflow and outflow is known and fixed grade nodes, they take form of tanks or large constan-pressure mains.

Control valves regulate the flow or pressure. If conditions exist for flow reversal, the valve will close and no flow will pass. The most common type is pressure reducing valve (PRV), which is placed at pressure zone boundaries to reduce pressure. The PRV maintains a constant pressure at the downstream side for all flows. hl varies, depending upon the downstream pressure and not on the flow in the pipe. There are many other types of valves, isolation valves to shut down a segment, direction control (check) valves to allow the flow of water in only one direction, such as swing check, rubber-flopper, slenting check disk check, double door and vacuum-breaker valves to control flow.

Distribution system storage is needed to equalize discharge near an efficient operating demands. Distribution storage is closely associated with water tank. Tanks are usually made of steel and can be built at ground level or be elevated at a certain height from the ground. The water tank is used to supply water to meet the requirements during high system demands or during emergency conditions when pumps cannot adequately satisfy the pressure requirements at the demand nodes.

The higher the pump discharge, the lower the pump head becomes. Thus, during the peried of peak demands, the amount of available pump head is low.

The most commonly used type of pump used in water distribution systems is the cenrifugal pump.

The flow measuring of water mains involves electromagnetic meters, ultrasonic meters, propeller or turbine meters, displacement meters, multijet meters, proportional meters, compound meters.

Goals for water distribution operation :
1.Maximize reliability, achieved by keeping the maximum amount of water in storage in case of emergencies, such as pipe breaks and fires.
2.Minimize energy costs, achieved by operating pumps against as low a head as possible (min water in storage) near the best efficiency point for the pump.
3.Meet water quality standards, which involves minimizing the time the water is n the distribution systems and tanks and is achieved by having storage tanks levels fluctuate as much as possible.

The control of pumping operations can range from a simple manual operation an individual pump or valve to the use of a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. Most utilities have some level of a SCADA system in place for use in operation of the system.

The SCADA system would provide not only real time hydraulic parameters but also realtime water quality information to the network model.

System : Demand forecast - Network - Optimization (SCADA in all process)

PERVARİ BARAJI

www.fe.doe.gov.tr
www.ntf.com
1998 Şubat ayında ABD-Türkiye ikili anlaşmalarına göre 9 HE proje, Amerikalı bir lider firma tarafından gerçekleştirilmek üzere görüşüldü. Hakkari, Alpaslan II, Konaktepe'nin kontratı imzalandı. Diğer HES'ler ise Gürsöğüt, Kargı, Pervari, Erik, Durak ve Mut.

Pervari Konsorsiyumu : Parsons, ICF Kaisen, NTF, Su-Yapı

Pervari Barajı Özellikleri : Enerji amaçlı, Kaya dolgu, Talveg yüksekliği 165m, Kurulu gücü 192 MW, Toplam Enerjisi 635 GWh, Brüt düşüsü 158m.

MELEN PROJESİ

SABAH
13.09.2002
-1988 : DSİ+Japon Nikkei ; fizibilite
-1,180 milyar m3 su(2040'a kadarki su)
-toplam maliyet 1,181 milyon$
-1.aşama için 10 ihale sonucu 527milyon$
-Regülatör+154 km isale hattı+Cumhuriyet Arıtma Tesisi+Boğaziçi tüneli+kağıthane dağıtım şirketi

KÜRTÜN BARAJI VE BETON YÜZLÜ İLK BARAJ

THE KÜRTÜN CONCRETE FACED ROCKFILL DAM NEARS COMPLETION_M.U.BECERİK
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON HYDROPOWER & DAMS
VOLUME 9 ISSUE 5 2002 PAGE 81
Turkey's first CRFD, the 130m high Kürtün Dam was completed in February in the Eastern Black Sea Region. Surface slopes were 1/1.4 and 1/1.5, the concrete face was coat in 15m sections, it is 70cm thick at base and 30cm at the crest.

KEBAN BARAJINDA SORUNLAR

SABAH
3.9.1998
1974 yılında kurulan Keban barajı, erozyon yüzünden kısa sürede toprakla dolarken, tabanında oluşan yeraltı çatlakların da milyonlarca metreküp suyun boşa akmasına neden oluyor. 100 yıl ömür tahmin edilen baraj, şimdiden ömrünün yarısını doldurdu.

HİDROGÜÇ GELİŞİMİ, TR'DE

HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN TURKEY_D.ALTINBİLEK
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON HYDROPOWER & DAMS
VOLUME 9 ISSUE 5 2002 PAGE 61
The future plans require that the full development of hydropower must be achieved within two decades. To realize this objective, 1000MW of installed capacity must be added every year for the next 20 years.

In 1954, DSI was established.

From the initial production of 2.8 TWh in 1960, hydroenergy increases to 125 TWh. It represents %10 growth annually throughout 40 year period. Between 1963-2001, DSI spent US$14,000,000,000 on hydropower development.

The operation of hydroplants was handed over to TEK. Then it was divided into TEAS(generation and transmission) and TEDAS(distribution). In 2001, TEAS was seperated into TEUAS(operation), TEIAS(transmission), TETAS(sales, purchase). EPDH responsible for measures for a liberation.

The hydroplants with an installed capacity greater than 500MW,
Atatürk 2400MW
Karakaya 1800MW
Keban 1330MW
Ilısu 1200MW
Altınkaya 700MW
Birecik 672MW
Deriner 670MW
Oymapınar 540MW
Yusufeli 540MW
Berke 510MW
H.Uğurlu 500MW

Ilısu, Deriner and Yusufeli are not yet in operation. Almost %70 is generated by these 8 existing hydroplants. Four of the are on the Euphrates river (Dicle : Keban-Karakaya-Atatürk-Birecik-Karkamış)

A total of 34 projects with 3384 MW are under construction. With them, Turkey will have reached %44 of potential. Some of them under construction are :
Deriner 670MW
Obruk 203MW
Borçka 300MW
Kiğı 140MW
Alparslan-I 160MW
Akköprü 115MW
Torul 103MW
Muratlı 115MW
Uluabat-Çınarcık 120MW

Future projects within the next 20-30 years, will be implemented as turnkey projects on a full financing basis, through bilateral cooperation aggrements.

Plan requires the the installed hydrocapacity should increase to 22380MW in 2010 and to 31468MW in 2020. This require the addition to the system of 1000MW annually over a period of 20 years, with a view of developing all the economic potential by the year of 2023 which is the 100th annivrsary of foundation of the Turkish Republic.

Recently, a consortium withdrew from negotiations for the Ilısu Dam on Tigris. Main concern were resettlement of people and cultural heritage of Hasankeyf.

Environmental law in 1983 protects the environment by applying the polluter pays principle.

Actual water consumption in Turkey as of 2000 reached 89.3 km3 which is only %36 of economically exploitable water potential, %75 for irrigation, %15 for domestic use, %10 for industrial.

Productivity of hydroelectric energy is 0.009 $/kWh. Thus, the contribution is 3.96 billion $/yr. %60 of this economic value is accepted as the gross value added, the contribution to the GVA amounts to 2.38 billion $/yr.

1 kWh is taken as 0.05$, Keban and Atatürk Dan covered its cost in seven years.

HİDROELEKTRİK GELİŞİMİN ÖNEMİ, TR'DE

THE IMPORTANCE OF HYDROELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT IN TURKEY_M.TURFAN
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON HYDROPOWER & DAMS
VOLUME 9 ISSUE 5 2002 PAGE 58
Turkey is one of the country with very limited resources, very little oil, some coal, which is generally low in quality.

The use of electricity indicates the level of industrialization and prosperity of a community. The per capita annual electricity consumption of Turkey is around 1500 kWh, which is below the world's average 2252 kWh. However, energy demand is growing app. 8% annually.

Total energy potential of Turkey is 246 TWh/yr (125 TWh HES+ 105 TWh lignite+ 16 TWh hard coal). The gross hydropotential is about 433 TWh/yr, which represents 14% of the total potential of Europe. However, with current available technique only 125 TWh is technically available and economically feasible.

Turkey is not a water-rich country. The average annual surface runoff is 186 km3, only 98km3 could be technically developed for consumptive use. Total amount of exploitable water is 110 km3, 42 km3(%38) of the potential is consumed currently. By the year 2030, we plan to develop all. Then annual available water per capita will fall below the critical level of 1000m3.

Although generally Turkey has an adequate amount of water, it is not in the right place at the right time to meet needs.

The European countries and North America have already developed almost all of their hydropotential, while Turkey has developed only 35%. So far in Turkey 129 hydroplants (12177 MW installed capacity, 44 TWh annual generation capacity). 34 are under construction, 388 will be constructed. This requires 30,000,000,000$. Unit price per kWh of hydropower in Turkey is 5cent, its contribution to GNP is around US$1

HİDROELEKTRİK ENERJİ, TR'DE

www.fe.doe.gov
Türkiye'nin Hidroelektrik potansiyeli ve kullanımı :
Dünya HE potansiyelinin %1'i
125 kullanımda HES
TR'nin elektrik gereksiniminin %40'ı
Kurulu Güçlerine göre en büyük barajlar : Atatürk (2400MW), Karakaya, Keban, Altınkaya, Birecik...
Planı ve yapımı süren barajlar : Ilısu (1200MW), Deriner (670MW), Yusufeli (540), ... , Borçka (300), Hakkari (208), Pervari (192), Konaktepe (138)

HİDROELEKTRİK ENERJİ, TR'DE

APPLIED WATER RESOURCES ENG._M.YANMAZ
SAYFA 6
Türkiye, Avrupa'nın 3., dünyanın 21. hidroelektrik potansiyeline sahip.

HES, TÜRKİYE'DE

THEMA LAROUSSE
CİLT 3 SAYFA 370
1956'ya kadar, Türkiye'de HES yoktu. 50'lerde başlayıp, 70'lerde hızlanan baraj seferberliğiyle 90'ların başında Türkiye elektriğinin %40'ı HES'lardandır. Türkiye'de baraj gölleri çok büyük, HES' ler çok güçlüdür. Düşü genelde orta ve küçüktür ama bu su hacmi ve debisiyle telafi edilir.

BASINÇLI AKIM HİDROLİĞİ

HYDRAULICS OF PRESSURIZED FLOW_B.W.KARNEY
SAYFA 44
The term pressurized pipeline means a pipe system in which a free water surface is almost never found within the conduit. Mre precise is difficult because even in a pressurized pipe system, free surfaces are present within reserviors and tanks an sometimes can occur within the pipeline itself. However, in a pressurized system, the pressure within the conveyance system are usually well above atmospheric.

Modeling Approach
To model the behavior of the system, seek to answer where, what, how, where is resolved by assuming a direction of flow in each link. This gives an orientation to the specification of distance, discharge and velocity. Positive values indicate flow in the assumed direction

What is the material that makes up the pipe walls or fills the pipe. Water properties : density 1000kg/m3, density max at 4 C above freezing. high viscosity : .001 Ns/m2 )

How is based on three essential relations : 1.kinematic relation obtained from the law of mass conservation in a control volume. 2.equations of motion provided by both Newton's second law and the energy equation and 3.on equation of state adapted from compressibiliy considerations.

Conservation of Mass : key expression is the continuity or mass conservation equation. If for an isolated system, a quantity can be defined that remains precisely constant, the quantity is said to be absolutely conserved. (momentum, change, angular momentum)

1.Conservation of chemical species : molecular species are conserved in the absence of chemical reactions and atomic species are conserved in the absence of nuclear reactions.
DS=Sf-Si : balance final - balance initial, S'=ds/dt=I-O (S is the water stored in the control volume)

2.Steady Flow : I=O, inflow viAi = outflow viAi, assuming the flow is steady.
Q1+Q2 = Q3+Q4 (continuity at a pipe junction)

Newton's Second Law : It relates the changes in motion of a fluid or solid to the forces that cause the change. Thus, the result of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the system with respect to time.
Fext= d(mv)/dt = m dv/dt = ma

System Capacity : Problems in Time and Space
A transmission system is usually composed of a single-series line, as opposed to a distribution system that often consists of a complex network of interconnected pipes.

Issues of hydraulic capacity are usually answered by projecting demands and analyzing the system under steady flow conditions.

Questions about operation and sizing of pumping and reservoirs are answered by considering the gradual variation of demand over relatively short periods. In such cases, analysts use a quasi-steady approach. (F and E balances on the basis of steady, but the unsteady form is for the continuity so that flows can be accumulated and stored.)

Finally, the issue of required strenght, such as the pressure rating, is answered by considering transient conditions.

Steady flow, at a point flow do not change with the time. Otherwise, a flow is unsteady or transient. A more strictive definition is usually applied, temporal mean velocity does not change over periods.

Incompressible flow : if q is constant, it is said to be incompressible.

Steady Flow
Bernoulli equation : P/& + v2/2g + z (pressure head + velocity head + elevation head), H1=H2+hl, hl=L x S

Plot of pieozometric head called the HGL. A plot of total head is EGL.

The flow regime is classified by Re=vDl/m, Re<2000 - laminar flow, Re>4000 - turbulent, between transitional.

If the flow is turbulent, many small and abrupt variations in velocity in all directions occur. Moreover, the unsteady valves of instantaneous velocity will exist. Despite this, the mean values of velocity and pressure will be fixed as long as the external conditions do not change. It is in this sense that turbulent flows can be considered to be steady. Rapid mixing of turbulent flow can include detrimental reates of energy loss, high rates of corrosion, rapid scouring and erosion, excessive noise and vibration.

DW : hl=f L/D v2/2g (circular), D-4R (non-circular)
laminar f=Re/64
turbulent hl=f(Re, rel rough) - Moody/Colebrook-White

HW : Q=.278 C D2.63 S0.54 (S=hl/L), besides Swanee-Jain

DW equation is superior because it is theoretically based.

Local losses occurs for reasons other than wall friction, hl=K v2/2g

Pump supply Hp, key term is total dynamic head TDH. TDH varies with the discharge Q this H-Q is called the pump characteristics curve.
Hp=hp + v2/2g

Quasi Steady Flow System Operation
A common application arises in reservior engineering, in this case, the key step is to relate the rate of outflow, to the amount of water in the reservoir.

Unsteady Flow : Introduction of Fluid Transient
Pressure pipe systems are subjected to mechanical forces caused by fluid pressure, differential settlement and concentrated loads. In addition it must resist corrosion and chemical attacks. The internal pressure is of special importance due to wall thickness and mechanical strength.

The total force within a conduit is obtained by summing the steady state and waterhammer pressures in the line. Transient pressures are most important when Q is changed rapidly such as by closing a valve or stopping a pump.

The tendency to design for steady-state conditions has been common in the industry. The practice is troublesome, the pipeline may not perform as expected, it may be overdesigned and thus unnecessarily expensive. The goal is to answer how do transient arise and under what circumstances are transient conditions most severe.

BARAJLAR

FOCUS
8.1999
Dünya bankası, gelişim projeleri içinde en çok barajlara destek veriyor. Dünyada 15m'den yüksek 40000, 150m'den büyük 100 baraj var. Bu barjlar dünya nehirlerinin %15'ini enerji üretimi için tutuyor. Barajların 3/4'ü son 35 yıl içinde kuruldu Barajlar, doğal felaketlerin %40'ını oluşturan selleri önlüyorlar.

BARAJ, TÜRKİYE'DE

APPLIED WATER RESOURCES ENG._M.YANMAZ
SAYFA 6
1997 itibariyle, 168 baraj çalışmakta. 702 baraj ve 504 HES üzerine halen DSİ çalışmalarını sürdürüyor.

BARAJ SIRALAMASI, DÜNYADA

CUMHURİYET
10.8.2002
1.Cornelia Tailings(ABD) 209.5 milyar m3
2.Torbela(Pakistan) 106.0 milyar m3
3.Fort Peck(ABD) 96,1 milyar m3
4.Lower Usuma(Nijerya) 93,0 milyar m3
5.Tucurui(Brezilya) 85,2 milyar m3
6.Atatürk(Türkiye) 84,5 milyar m3

STEEL - CAST IRON

http://www.ce.cmu.edu/~garrett/courses/12-100/LECTURES/strength-of-materials.pdf
Cast iron ultimate tensile strength is 310 MPa, +%5 carbon = 415 MPa
Other properties (ductility, corrosion resistance increased too)

ROMA MİMARİSİ

STV
29.1.1998
Roma mimarisiyle yapılmış Lübnan'daki bir kolon örneğinde, kolonun içinde civa tesbit edildi. Bunu göstermek için, kolonun taşlarının birleşim noktasına bir bıçak sokulduğunda bıçağın hareket ettiği görüldü.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Density (kg/m3)
Steel 7860
Aluminum 2710
Water 1000
Concrete 2190
Wood 525

Young's Modulus (MPa)
Steel-cold roll.210 000
Stainless steel 210 000
Cast iron 110 000
Aluminum 70 000
Concrete 30 000
Wood 13 000

Ultimate Strength (MPa)
Steel (A36) 415
Stainless steel 620
Cast iron 310
Aluminum 125
Concrete (comp) 40
Wood 50

Yield Strength (MPa)
Steel (A36) 240
Stainless steel 210
Cast iron 210
Aluminum 85

PORTLAND İSMİNİN KAYNAĞI

REINFORCED CONCRETE_U.ERSOY
SAYFA 1
1824'de ilk portland çimentosu bulunduğunda, donmuş çimento Portland adasındaki yapı taşlarına benzediği için ona bu isim verildi.

MİMAR SİNAN'IN DERZ MALZEMESİ

FOCUS
8.1999
Harç malzemesi olarak günümüzde çimento ve kireç yapıştırıcı olarak kullanılır. Sinan çağında bağlayıcı olarak yumurta akı kullanılmıştır. Kesme taş yapılarda kurşun levhaların derzler içine yerleştirildiği görülür.

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION_T.ERDOĞAN

1.MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING
Engineering structures have to be :
1.safe
2.servicable
3.economical

Among the properties of materials, "mechanical properties that show behaviour under loads" and "durability" are the most important.

Commonly used organizations and related standards :
• TSE : TS
• ASTM : American Society for Testing and Materials : ASTM specs
• ACI : American Concrete Institute : ACI specs
• ISO : ISO
• CEN : European Committee for Standardization : EN

2.BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS UNDER LOADS
1.INTRODUCTION
Forces :
1.Compressive
2.Tensile
3.Shear

a.Static
b.Dynamic

i.isotropic
ii.anisotropic

2.STRESS AND STRAIN
Stress : The intensity of a reaction force at any point in the body
stress (sigma) = F / A (kgf/cm2 or MPa)

Principal stresses :
1.uniaxial
2.bi- or tri-axial
3.shear

Strain : Deformation per unit length of the body. (dimensionless)
strain (epsilon) = DL / L0

3.ELASTICITY
A material is called elastic if the deformation produced by the effect of a force totally disappears after removal of the force. Acc. to Hooke's law, stress in an elastic body is proportional to strain (E). Hooke's Law usually applies to very small deformations.

Elastic Constants :
1.Modulus of elasticity, Young's modulus (E)
when an elastic material is subjected to an axial force, the magnitude of the deformation is directly proportional to force and length in the same direction.
DL ~ F x L / A
DL = F x L / A x E,
E = stress / strain

2.Modulus of compressibility, Bulk Modulus (K)
K = hydrostatic pressure / volumetric strain

3.Modulus of rigidity, shear modulus (G)
G = shear stress / shear strain

4.Poisson's ratio, (mü)
mü = lateral strain / long. strain (both caused by longitudinal stress)

4.PLASTICITY AND FLOW
Many materials exhibit elasticity up to a certain minimum stress and show permanent (nonrecoverable) deformation if min. stress is exceed, this is callled elastoplastic material. The minimum stress is called yield stress. Permanent deformation is described as plastic deformation.

5.DUCTILITY AND BRITTLENESS
Ductility is the capacity of the load resisting material while resisting, Brittleness is the tendency to break when stress exceeding the elastic limit. (i.e.materials that have plastic deformation capacity is called ductile whereas if they break shortly after elastic deformation, they are called brittle.

Ductile materials : steel, plastic, fibers etc.
Brittle materials : concrete, clay bricks, cast iron

6.STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
Ductile materials are investigated under tensile stress, whereas birttle under compressive.
Some properties :
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Yield point
Strain hardening
Ultimate strength
Breaking strength

12.TOUGHNESS AND RESILIENCE
Toughness is the ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Modulus of toughness is max. energy without fracture. (area under stress-strain curve)

Toughness is desirable when materials are to be subjected to dynamic loads.

Resilience is the capacity to absorb energy in the elastic range.

13.VISCOSITY
Property of resistance to flow; internal friction that the materials exhibits during flow. It affected from heat.

14.CREEP
The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time under a constant stress is called Creep. This is observed in all materials.

15.FATIGUE
The phenomenon of fracture caused by the progressive damage due to the repetition of applied stresses is called fatigue. To show relation, Stress and number of cycles are plotted for different stresses. Fatigue limit or endurance limit is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied repeatedly an infinite number of times without fracture. For example, fatigue limit of concrete is around %55 of its maximum static strength.

16.HARDNESS
It is defined as the resistance of a material to scratching or indentation. It is determined by Moh's hardness test. It is used usually for rock and stone. For metals, Brinell and other methods are used.

3.FERROUS METALS
1.INTRODUCTION

2.PIG IRON
It is obtained by heating iron ore to high temperature, and removing oxide from Fe2O3, Fe3O4 in blast furnace. Pig iron include high carbon, it makes it brittle.

3.CAST IRON
It is produced by remelting pig iron in another furnace to eliminate impurities.

The rate of cooling affects the properties, if cool slowly, some carbon combines with iron and remainder is large crystals of graphite or carbon. It makes iron weak and brittle. But rapid cooling set up high initial stresses, in order to prevent this, annelaling (process involving heating and cooling to induce softening) is used and malleable cast iron produces and it has capability to shape by hammer.

Cast irons are hard and brittle, ultimate strength is 110-250 MPa, easy to form.

It is used for members in which tensile stress is low, like parts of machinery and pipe fittings.

4.STEEL
It is produced from pig iron by removing impurities. As taking out molten steel, it may be cast into containers or cas into directly into the desired shape. It can be produced by forging (placing a plate), rolling (cont. passed b/w two sides) The rolling may be carried in elevated temp. (hot rolled), or in room temp. (cold rolling). In hot temp. it allows to move atoms. so not change properties too much, if low temp, properties is changed, tensile str. is increased nd cutility is reduced. The another techniques are extrusion and drawing.

The carbon content is usually %1.5. By increasing carbon, str. inc. ductility dec. Low carbon steels are called mild steels, soft very ductile.

d= 12mm 0.888 kg/m
d= 18mm 2.000 kg/m

KİREÇ VE ALÇININ İLK KULLANIMI

REINFORCED CONCRETE_U.ERSOY
SAYFA 1
Mısırlılar, ilk olarak kireç ve alçıyı bağlayıcı malzeme olarak yapılarında kullandılar. Piramitlerde de bu malzemeler kullanılmıştır.

KİLİN İLK KULLANIMI

REINFORCED CONCRETE_U.ERSOY
SAYFA 1
Bağlayıcı malzeme olarak Asurlular ve Babilliler ilk olarak kullandılar.

GYPSUM

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION_T.Y.ERDOĞAN
SAYFA 151

1.INTRODUCTION
Pure Gypsum : CaSO4 2H20, include CaO(lime), SO3, H2O
Impurities : Silica, Alumina, Ironoxide, Calcium carbonate, Magnesium carbonate

2.MANUFACTURE
grinding, calcination (burning), cooling, pulverizing

Calcination in rotary kilns :
CaSO4 2H20 -> (100-1900C) CaSO4 1/2H2O + 3/2H2O (partial)
CaSO4 1/2H2O : plaster of paris (adi alçı)

CaSO4 2H20 -> (1900C) CaSO4 + 2H2O (complete)
CaSO4 : anhydrite

3.SETTING AND HARDENING
mixed with water, result is plaster. Setting means loss of initial plasticity or gaining rigidity. Hardening means gain in strength.

4.PLASTERS AND MORTARS
Plaster is used in plastic state, mortar can be troweled and becomes hard in place, to bond bricks. Plaster form hard covering.

1.Plaster of paris
2.Hardwall plaster : Pop + admixture
3.Flooring plaster : anhydrite
4.Hardfinish plaster

PROPERTIES
Properties and uses :
1.Plaster of Paris :
setting : 5-20min.
sculpturing, small repairs, ornamental works

2.Hardwall plaster : Pop : admixture
setting : 1hr.
comp. strength : 7 MPa
prefabricated fabric units, masonry brick and blocks

3.Flooring and hardfinish plaster :
setting : 1-16hr
comp. strength > 7 MPa
prefabricated units, masonry brick and blocks, flooring and pavement bricks and tiles

Properties :
• not water resistant
• good fireproofing and sound isolation
• disintegrates when exposed with water
• expands 2-3times upon hardening

ÇİMENTONUN İLK KULLANIMI

REINFORCED CONCRETE_U.ERSOY
SAYFA 1
Romalılar, ilk olarak çimentoyu buldular. Bu çimento, sönmüş kireçle Vezüv yanardağının volkanik küllerinin karıştırılmasıyla oluşturulmuştu ve Pozzolona, adı veriliyordu.

CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

CE244 DERS NOTLARI_M.TOKYAY
Cementatious materials are substances which upon chemical reactions attain binding value, they are gypsum, lime and cement.

Special Properties :
1.Fineness : particle size
2.Normal Consistency : # of water for spec. cons.
3.Setting time : beginning of loss of plasticity
4.Sand carrying capacity : # of sand that can be added without harming the plasticity in fresh state.
5.Hardening
6.Yield : volume of final product from ind. ingredients.

BETONARME'NİN KEŞFİ

REINFORCED CONCRETE_U.ERSOY
SAYFA 2
1857'de Monier adlı bir Fransız, betondan bir saksı yaptı ve bunu tellerle güçlendirdi. Bu olay betonarmenin patenti olarak kabul edilir.

DEPREMİN SONUÇLARI

MİLLİYET
18.4.2002
1999 depremlerinin sonucunda 90000 bina yıkıldı veya ağır hasar aldı. 190000 bina az ve orta hasar gördü. 20000 insan öldü, 50000 kişi yaralandı, 600000 kişi evini terketti. Toplam ekonomik zarar 14milyar$

DEPREM UYARI SİSTEMİ

CUMHURİYET
15.8.2002
California deprem merkezince yürütülen bir araştırmayla depremin ilk aşamaları tanımlanabiliyor, merkezüssü, şiddeti tahmin edebiliniyor. Denemelerde sistemin 3.5-6.3 şiddetli 54 depremi bildiği, %100e yakın doğruluk gösterdiği kaydedildi. Maliyeti ise 60milyon$.

PROJE SIRALAMASI, DÜNYADA

CUMHURİYET
10.8.2002
1.Manş Tüneli (İngiltere-Fransa)
2.Yangtze Elektrik Santrali (Çin)
3.Asma Köprü (HongKong)
4.Narmada Vadisi (Hindistan)
5.Akashi Koiyko Köprüsü (Japonya)
6.Büyük Yapay Nehir (Libya)
7.Kuala Lumpur İkiz Kuleleri (Malezya)
8.GAP (Türkiye)
9.Hibernia Petrol Platformu (Kanada)

BASINÇ BİRİMLERİ

1 atm = 1 bar = 14.7 psi = 100 Pa
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 psi = 1 lb/in2 = 6.9 Pa
1 MPa = 10 kgf/cm2